This is a paper on Donatello that I wrote for AHIS110. I scored 88% on it. There were several places were the teacher told me to "expand" or "clarify". The problem is, I did expand or clarify them in my draft, but did too fine a job slicing and dicing to get it within the word count limit :-)

Donatello's David: A Subtle Symbol of Political Power
Christine Bennett
Preface
Donatello (1386?-1466), created two versions of the Old Testament boy hero, David, in his lifetime. The two figures, a marble and a bronze, were created about 30 years apart. The first version, the marble, is a more traditional representation of a Biblical figure and more typical of Donatello's early work. The bronze, is stylistically very different and not traditional at all with its sensuous youth and nudity. It is fair to say that the bronze was inspired by a different esthetic than the marble. Differences in composition, pose, and placement also gave the two statues different meaning.
The marble was commissioned by the Board of Works of Florence Cathedral, but was bought by the city because it was too small to fit on the buttress of the church. The bronze, which is perhaps more well known than the marble, is considered to be the first major nude of the Renaissance. Unlike the marble, it was actually a comission by Cosimo Medici for use in his courtyard. As a private undertaking, the bronze also shows Donatello's freedom to explore and artistic maturity. He was most likely inspired by a classical statue of Antoniuos and Greco-Roman esthetic. The marble was created between 1408 and 1412, while speculation pins the bronze at about 1444. The exact dates of creation are unknown.
After researching the bronze, I discovered that the David can also be viewed as a political symbol of the Medici family as "tyrant-slayers" and defenders of republican values instead of just as a simple biblical retelling of a heroic act. Interestingly enough, the David shared the courtyard with another Donatello work, Judith and Holofernes, which also depicts decapitation. The bronze and its placement in the Medici palace courtyard served as a reminder to visitors of the Medici family's place in Florence.
Herein I will compare and contrast the two figures of David and delve into the meaning of the bronze David. I will also illustrate how the bronze was not just a mere decoration, but a symbol of  the pride and power of the Medici family in Florence with supporting evidence from my research.
A Brief Overview of David and Goliath
David and Goliath has been a popular theme for centuries with its powerful story of the weak overcoming the strong. David is the boy hero from the Old Testament who defeated a fearsome Philistine named Goliath. Armed solely with his sling and his faith in God, he killed the overconfident Goliath by striking him in the only place his armor didn’t cover – his forehead. (Bell and Campbell 99-100). David was almost always depicted in art as a "king, prophet, writer of the Psalms, or ancestor of Christ" (Beckham 34) until Donatello’s bronze David changed this traditional portrayal.

The Bronze David
By the time David was commissioned for Cosimo de’ Medici’s palace courtyard, Donatello had a solid reputation as a sculptor (Avery, Donatello: an introduction 21). The exact date of creation is unknown, but believed to be around 1444. David is nude except for his floppy hat and finely decorated boots (ill. 1). He is considered to be the first major life-sized free-standing nude of the Renaissance (Avery, Florentine Renaissance Sculpture 82). Oddly relaxed, instead of triumphant, he  gazes dreamily at Goliath's severed head (ill. 2). The heaviness of Goliath's armor, face and beard contrasts sharply with the clean, smooth features of David. Unlike the earlier marble David (ill. 3), this David wields a sword, rather than a sling (ill. 2).

The bronze harkens back to statues of nude athletes from Greco-Roman times (Avery, Donatello: an introduction 90) and reflects Donatello’s artistic maturity, both in the way he depicted the nude David, as well as skill. His hair is sharply chiselled while his body exhibits “the softness of living flesh” (Avery, Florentine Renaissance Sculpture 82). Donatello had earlier spent three years in Rome studying classical sculpture from 1430-33 (Avery, Florentine Renaissance Sculpture 74) and would have been well acquainted with and perhaps inspired by male nudes. David displays male grace, beauty, and tenderness with his gentle pose, although his body is not as idealized and is more naturalistic than a classical nude. So convincing was David that it was rumoured that the statue’s arms were cast from a living model (Avery, Florentine Renaissance Sculpture 82). 
			
History and Placement of David
Donatello was on very good terms with the powerful Medici family, having previously completed the tomb of John XXIII from 1421-28 (Avery, Donatello: an introduction 49). He was particularly close to Cosimo de’ Medici, who used his wealth and power to keep Donatello steadily employed (Avery, Donatello: an introduction 50).

David was created for the Medici Palace, which was constructed between 1445 and the mid-1450s. David might have been completed in 1444, but he was installed some time after the Medicis moved into the palace in 1457. (McHam 32). David shared the courtyard with another Donatello sculpture, Judith and Holofernes. This statue also depicts the decapitation of a tyrant. They remained there until about 1495, a year after the Medicis were expelled from Florence (McHam 32).

The original placement of David must be considered, as he may appear out of context in a museum. He was positioned centrally in the courtyard of the palace on a high base. He was visible from the street if the main portal of the palace was open (McHam 32). The courtyard was used for "formal receptions and family rituals" and therefore an important part of the palace (McHam 32). The columns of the courtyard were classicized and the walls were decorated with shields and garlands, perhaps as a reminder to visitors of the Medici's collection of antiquities. (McHam 32). 

David is also characteristic of a shift in art and architecture during Donatello’s lifetime. Donatello had a growing interest in classical sculpture and nudes, and he freed the bodies of his subjects from drapery (Poeschke 41). For example, the earlier marble David displays a Gothic influence (ill. 3). The most notable feature is the taut and curving outlines of the figure and style of drapery (Poeschke 19). Donatello did not intend to reproduce classical sculpture, but borrowed and reworked classical styles and form for his own purposes (Poeschke 41), as illustrated by the bronze’s grace and beauty. David is also unique in that he was meant to be viewed from every angle, just like a classical statue. The youth is liberated from the constraints of architectural requirements (Poeschke 41) and not bound to a building or facade.

Symbolism and Meaning in David
Aside from the meaning of the biblical telling, David takes on at least two additional meanings. Charles Avery feels that the sensual youth is a representation of heavenly love. One of the roundels on Goliath’s helmet is based on another roundel in the courtyard that depicts Eros on a chariot drawn by winged babes. Eros is the god of platonic love - love that is not sexual, but pure. Donatello may have been inspired by a description of Eros from Plato’s Symposium. According to Avery, the statue tells the viewer what the biblical story does not, such as the youthfulness and tranquility befitting a shepard boy. Compared to the traditional representation of the earlier marble, the nude must have shocked some viewers (Donatello: an introduction 90). However, biblical David killed Goliath because he had threatened his people and because no one else challenged the giant. He risked everything for the love of his people (Bell and Campbell 99-100), and the purity of this love is evident in David’s expression (ill. 2).

However, Sarah Blake McHam feels the bronze can also be seen as a "self-conscious allusion to the to the earlier marble analogue and its inscription" (34). The marble David was still standing in the Palazzo della Signoria some thirty years later after it was installed in 1416 (Bennett and Wilkins 66). It "could be understood as a sign that the Medici were closely connected to that regime and continued its ideals" (McHam 34). 

Both versions had anti-tyranny inscriptions. The marble bore "To those who fight bravely for the fatherland the gods lend aid even against the most terrible foes" (Bennett and Wilkins 66) while the bronze was accompanied by "The victor is whoever defends the fatherland. God crushes the wrath of an enormous foe. Behold! A boy overcame a great tyrant. Conquer, o citizens!" (McHam 32). When the marble was made, Florence had been threatened by assorted enemies for a long period and had recently emerged from conflict. There is no doubt that the theme of David slaying the giant Goliath appealed to many citizens at the time (Bennett and Wilkins 66).

Together with the inscriptions and the biblical story, the bronze could mean that it is justifiable to kill a tyrant (McHam 41). The sword is a curious aspect, as it departs from the story and marble. McHam feels the sword was most likely a symbol derived from John of Salisbury’s Policraticus. The treatise was popular because it was based on the Bible and “patristic literature”. It had a popular role in the Middle Ages and Renaissance as a document on how to govern (38). She theorizes that Donatello would have been familiar with this document as the sword is emphasized greatly in the statue as well as the severed head. The sword is also the means of killing that Salisbury recommended - “For whoever takes up the sword deserves to perish by the sword” (41).

It could be said that the Medicis appropriated David’s meaning, visage and symbolism  as a "corporate symbol" and "informed the cognoscenti that true power resided several hundred meters north of the Palazzo della Signoria" (McHam 34). By the later half of the 15th century, the Medici family was familiar with assassination and needed to deflect charges of tyranny from itself. Unlike previous conflicts, where threats were external, threats were now coming from native soil. Many attempts were made in Milan, Rome, and Florence to overthrow existing governments (McHam 40). Cosimo de' Medici and, later, his brother Piero, took harsh measures to suppress anyone who opposed them (McHam 41). There was a rebellion against Piero de’ Medici in 1466 and the Pazzi Conspiracy assassinated Giovanni de’ Medici in 1478, but failed to kill Lorenzo de’ Medici (McHam 40). It served the family well to use the statue as a propaganda tool by displaying themselves as tyrant slayers (McHam 43) and preservers of liberty in protecting Florence against any threats (McHam 41). The real threats, of course, were not against Florence, but the Medici family’s hold on power (McHam 43).

Although the subject and purpose of the bronze as a biblical hero seems apparent to the casual viewer, research and speculation reveal deeper levels of interpretation as suggested by Charles Avery and Susan Blake McHam. Whether as a symbol of platonic love or as a political symbol for the Medici family, David still characterizes a return to classical sculpture and form in the Renaissance. His shy smile betrays this intrigue, almost as if his soft expression hides some long forgotten meaning that only theories and historical analysis can fill.
		
Works Cited

Avery, Charles. Donatello: an introduction. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., 1994.

---. Florentine Renaissance Sculpture. London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd., 1970.

Bell, Jim and Stan Campbell. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to The Bible. New York: Alpha 	Books, 1999.

Bennett, Bonnie and David G. Wilkins. Donatello. Mt. Kisco, NY: Moyer Bell Ltd., 1984.

McHam, Sarah Blake. "Donatello's Bronze David and Judith as Metaphors of Medici Rule in Florence". Art Bulletin 83/3 (2001): 32-47.

Poeschke, Joachim. Donatello and His World: Sculpture of the Italian Renaissance. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1993.

For Further Reading

Crum, Roger J. and Claudia Lazzaro, eds. Donatello Among The Blackshirts: History And Modernity In The Visual Culture Of Fascist Italy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.

Greenhalgh, Michael. Donatello and His Sources. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982.

Hibbert, Christopher. The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall. New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1980.

McHam, Sarah Blake, ed. Looking at Italian Renaissance Sculpture. Cambridge: 	Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Olson, Roberta J.M. Italian Renaissance Sculpture. New York: Thames & Hudson Inc., 1992.

Ill. 1
Donatello. David, c1444. Bronze, 158cm high, found on the SUNY-Oneonta Art History website <http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/arth200_assignments_f_03.html>.
Ill. 2
Donatello. David, c1444. Bronze, 158cm high, found on The Artchive website, <http://www.artchive.com/artchive/D/donatello.html>.

Ill. 3
Donatello. David, c1408-9. Marble, 191cm high, found on The Thais website,
<http://www.thais.it/scultura/sch00008.htm>.